MATERI BAHASA INGGRIS

Passive and Active

Pembentukkan kalimat Passive dari kalimat Active:

* Bentuk kalimat  Passive: be + V3.
* Object kalimat Active menjadi Subject dalam Kalimat Passive.
* Hanya kata kerja transitive yang bisa dipakai dalam kalimat passive.

 Active:

I   wrote the letter.

S + V + O 

Passive:

The letter was written by me. 

S + be + V3

Contoh lain:  

Tenses	Active	Passive
Simple Present	She helps him.	He is helped  by her.
Present Progressive	She is helping him.	He is being helped  by her.
Present Perfect	She has helped  him.	He has been helped by her.
Simple Past	She helped him.	He was helped by her.
Past Progressive	She was helping him.	He was being helped by her.
Past Perfect	She had helped him.	He had been helped  by her.
Simple Future	She will help him.	He will be helped by her.
Be going to	She is going to help him.	He is going to be helped  by her.
Future Perfect	She will have helped him.	She will have been helped  by her.

The Passive Form Of Modals

The Passive Form : modal + be + past partciple

Tom will be invited to the picnic.
The window cant  be opened.
Children should be taught to respect their elders.
May I  be excused from class?
This book had better  be returned  to the library before Friday.
This letter  ought to  be sent before June 1st.

Mary has to be told about our change in plans.

The Past-Passive form : modal + have been + past participle

The letter should have been sent last week.
This house must have been built over 200 years ago.
Jack  ought to have been invited to the party.

Kata kerja dalam bahasa Inggris juga dinyatakan dalam voice. Voice adalah istilah tata bahasa Inggris yang digunakan untuk menunjukkan hubungan kata kerja dan subjek (pokok kalimat).

Dalam bahasa Inggris dikenal dua voice, yaitu active dan passive.

Dalam kalimat passive, subjeknya dikenai atau menerima pekerjaan. Sedangkan kalimat active, subjeknya yang melakukan suatu tindakan atau pekerjaan.

Kalimat passive dibentuk dari dua bagian: to be + past participle.

Contoh active verbs dalam kalimat:
- I write a letter.
- He is buying a car.
- I keep the butter in the fridge.
- They stole the painting.
- The executive committee approved the new policy.

Contoh passive verbs dalam kalimat:
- A letter is written by me.
- A car is being bought by him.
- The butter is kept in the fridge.
- The painting was stolen.
- The new policy was approved by the executive committee.

Kalimat Aktif dan Kalimat Pasif

Kata kerja transitif mempunyai dua voice (ragam gramatikal), aktif dan pasif.

1) Bentuk aktif adalah orang, binatang, atau benda yang ditunjukkan oleh subjek dikatakan

melakukan sesuatu pada yang lain.

Contoh: Karim killed a tiger. Karim membunuh seekor harimau

2) Bentuk pasif adalah orang, binatang atau benda dikatakan menderita sesuatu dari sesuatu yang lain.

Contoh: A tiger was killed by Karim. Seekor harimau dibunuh oleh Karim

Bentuk pasif :

To Be + Past Participle

Aturan-aturan :

a) Kata kerja transitif tidak digunakan dalam bentuk pasif, kecuali kalau kata kerja itu menggunakan cognate object dalam bentuk aktif.

Aktif : She sang a fine song. Ia menyanyikan sebuah nyanyian yang merdu

Pasif : A fine song was sung by her. Sebuah nyanyian yang merdu dinyanyikan olehnya

b) Bilamana kalimat diubah dari bentuk aktif ke pasif, objek untuk kata kerja aktif menjadi subjek untuk kalimat kerja pasif.

objek untuk kata kerja aktif :

Aktif: Linda can make tarts. Linda dapat membuat kue tart

Subjek untuk kata kerja pasif :

Pasif: Tarts can be made by Linda

c) Retained object (objek yang tetap dipakai/dipertahankan dalam pasif)

Dua buah objek dalam kalimat aktif, ketika diubah menjadi kalimat pasif, masih tetap ada sebuah objek dipertahankan, objek ini dinamakan retained object. Objek ini mungkin objek tak langsung dari kata kerja aktif atau objek langsung dari kata kerja aktif.

Objek tak langsung dari kata kerja aktif

Kata Kerja aktif Kata kerja pasif

We gave him a prize A prize was given him by us

Objek langsung dari kata kerja aktif

Kata Kerja aktif Kata kerja pasif

We gave him a prize He was given a prize by us

Berikut contoh-contoh kalimat aktif yang dirubah menjadi kalimat pasif dalam bentuk tenses :

Passive sentence adalah kalimat yang subyeknya dikenai aksi dari kata kerjanya, atau kalimat yang menyatakan apa yang terjadi pada subyek kalimat, sedangkan kalimat aktif adalah kalimat yang menyatakan subyek kalimat melakukan apa. Dalam bahasa Indonesia kalimat pasif diterjemahkan dengan menggunakan awalan di- atau ter-

FORM: SUBJECT + BE + THE PAST PARTICIPLE (V3)

Be dalam kalimat pasif menentukan jenis Tense dari kalimat tersebut.

The present tense (am, is , are)
The past tense (was, were)
Infinitive (be)
-ing form (being)
the past participle (been)

Contoh kalimat passive yang menggunakan kata kerja Drive (drive-drove-driven)

1. The simple present tense
Subject + be (am/is/are) + the past participle
(active) Someone drives the car everyday
(passive) The car is driven everyday
(Passive Question) Is the car driven everyday?
(Passive Negative) The car is not driven everyday.

2. The Simple Past tense
Subject + be (was/were) + the past participle
(active) Someone drove the car
(Passive) The car was driven
(Passive Question) was the car driven?
(Passive Negative) The car was not driven

3. The simple future tense
Subject + will + be + the past participle
(active) Someone will drive the car
(Passive) The car will be driven
(Passive question) Will the car be driven?
(Passive Negative) The car will not be driven.

4. The simple future tense
Subject + be (am/is/are) going to + be + the past participle
(active) Someone is going to drive the car
(pasiive) The car is going to be driven
(Passive question) Is the car going to be driven?
(Passive Negative) The car is not going to be driven

5. The present continuous tense
Subject + be (am/is/are) + being + the past participle
(active) Someone is driving the car
(Passive) The car is being driven
(Passive question) Is the car being driven?
(Passive Negative) The car is not being driven

6. The past continuous tense
Subject + be (was/were) + being + the past participle
(active) Someone was driving the car
(Passive) The car was being driven
(Passive question) Was the car being driven?
(Passive Negative) The car was not being driven

7. The present perfect tense
Subject + has/heve + been + the past participle
(active) Someone has driven the car
(Passive) The car has been driven
(Passive Question) Has the car been driven?
(Passive Negative) The car has not been driven

8. The past perfect tense
Subject + had + been + the past participle
(active) Someone had driven the car.
(passive) The car had been driven
(passive question) Had the car been driven?
(passive Negative) The car had not been driven

9. The future perfect tense
Subject + will have + been + the past participle
(active) Someone will have driven the car
(passive) The car will have been driven
(Passive question) Will the car have been driven?
(Passive Negative) The car will not have been driven

Kalimat aktif (active voice) adalah kalimat dimana subject-nya melakukan pekerjaan, sebaliknya, kalimat pasif (passive voice) adalah kalimat dimana subject-nya dikenai pekerjaan oleh object kalimat. Active voice lebih sering digunakan dalam kehidupan sehari-hari dibandingkan dengan passive voice. Namun demikian, sering kita temukan passive voice di surat-surat kabar, artikel-artikel di majalah-majalah dan tulisan-tulisan ilmiah. Passive voice digunakan karena object dari active voice merupakan informasi yang lebih penting dibandingkan dengan subject-nya.

Contoh :
Active : We fertilize the soil every 6 months
Passive: The soil is fertilized by us every 6 months

Dari contoh ini dapat kita lihat bahwa:
Object dari active voice (the soil) menjadi subject dari passive voice
Subject dari active voice (we) menjadi object dari passive voice. Perhatikan pula bahwa terjadi perubahan dari subject pronoun ‘we’ menjadi object pronoun ‘us’.
Verb1 (fertilize) pada active voice menjadi verb3 (fertilized) pada passive voice.
Ditambahkannya be ‘is’ di depan verb3. Be yang digunakan adalah tergantung pada subject passive voice dan tenses yang digunakan. (Perhatikan pola-pola passive voice di bawah).
Ditambahkannya kata ‘by’ di belakang verb3. Namun, jika object dari passive voice dianggap tidak penting atau tidak diketahui, maka object biasanya tidak dikemukakan dan begitu pula kata ‘by’.
Khusus untuk kalimat-kalimat progressive (present, past, past perfect, future, past future, dan past future perfect continuous, perlu menambahkan ‘being’ di depan verb3). Kalau tidak ditambahkan “being”, tensisnya akan berubah, bukan progressive/continuous lagi. Perhatikan contoh-contoh pada poin h – o di bawah.

Berdasarkan keenam poin di atas maka passive voice mengikuti pola sebagai berikut:
Subject + be + Verb3 + by + Object + modifier

Pola active dan passive voice pada tiap tensis


a. Jika active voice dalam simple present tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah is, am atau are.

Contoh:
Active : He meets them everyday.
Passive : They are met by him everyday.
Active : She waters this plant every two days.
Passive : This plant is watered by her every two days.

b. Jika active voice dalam simple past tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah was atau were

Contoh:
Active : He met them yesterday
Passive : They were met by him yesterday
Active : She watered this plant this morning
Passive : This plant was watered by her this morning

c. Jika active voice dalam present perfect tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah been yang diletakkan setelah auxiliary has atau have, sehingga menjadi ‘has been’ atau ‘have been’

Contoh:
Active : He has met them
Passive : They have been met by him
Active : She has watered this plant for 5 minutes.
Passive : This plant has been watered by her for 5 minutes.


d. Jika active voice dalam past perfect tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah been yang diletakkan setelah auxiliary had, sehingga menjadi had been

Contoh:
Active : He had met them before I came.
Passive : They had been met by him before I came.
Active : She had watered this plant for 5 minutes when I got here
Passive : This plant had been watered by her for 5 minutes when I got here

e. Jika active voice dalam simple future tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah be

Contoh:
Active : He will meet them tomorrow.
Passive : They will be met by him tomorrow.
Active : She will water this plant this afternoon.
Passive : This plant will be watered by her this afternoon.
Active : The farmers are going to harvest the crops next week
Passive : The crops are going to be harvested by the farmers next week.

f. Jika active voice dalam future perfect tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah been yang diletakkan setelah auxiliary will have, sehingga menjadi ‘will have been’

Contoh:
Active : He will have met them before I get there tomorrow.
Passive : They will have been met by him before I get there tomorrow.
Active : She will have watered this plant before I get here this afternoon.
Passive : This plant will have been watered by her before I get here this afternoon.

g. Jika active voice dalam past future perfect tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah been yang diletakkan setelah auxiliary would have, sehingga menjadi ‘would have been’.

Contoh:
Active : He would have met them.
Passive : They would have been met by him.
Active : She would have watered this plant.
Passive : This plant would have been watered by her.

h. Jika active voice dalam present continuous tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah (is, am atau are) + being.

Contoh:
Active : He is meeting them now.
Passive : They are being met by him now.
Active : She is watering this plant now.
Passive : This plant is being watered by her now.



i. Jika active voice dalam past continuous tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah (was atau were) + being.

Contoh:
Active : He was meeting them.
Passive : They were being met by him.
Active : She was watering this plant.
Passive : This plant was being watered by her.

j. Jika active voice dalam perfect continuous tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah (has/have) been + being.

Contoh:
Active : He has been meeting them.
Passive : They have been being met by him.
Active : She has been watering this plant.
Passive : This plant has been being watered by her.

k. Jika active voice dalam past perfect continuous tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah had been + being.
Contoh:
Active : He had been meeting them.
Passive : They had been being met by him.
Active : She had been watering this plant.
Passive : This plant had been being watered by her.

l. Jika active voice dalam future continuous tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah will be + being.

Contoh:
Active : He will be meeting them.
Passive : They will be being met by him.
Active : She will be watering this plant.
Passive : This plant will be being watered by her.

m. Jika active voice dalam past future continuous tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah would be + being.

Contoh:
Active : He would be meeting them.
Passive : They would be being met by him.
Active : She would be watering this plant.
Passive : This plant would be being watered by her.

n. Jika active voice dalam future perfect continuous tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah will have been + being.

Contoh:
Active : He will have been meeting them.
Passive : They will have been being met by him.
Active : She will have been watering this plant.
Passive : This plant will have been being watered by her.

o. Jika active voice dalam past future perfect continuous tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah would have been + being.

Contoh:
Active : He would be meeting them.
Passive : They would be being met by him.
Active : She would be watering this plant.
Passive : This plant would be being watered by her.

Contoh-contoh yang lain:
Koko’s nose is bleeding. He was punched by his friend right on his nose. (Hidung Koko sedang berdarah. Dia dipukul oleh temannya tepat di hidungnya).
The Indonesian football team was beaten by the Saudi Arabian team. (Team sepakbola Indonesia dikalahkan oleh team arab Saudi).
These plants were watered by my sister a few minutes ago. (Tanaman-tanaman ini disirami oleh adikku beberapa menit yang lalu).
There is no meal left. All has been devoured by Yeyes. (Tidak ada makan yang tersisa. Semuanya telah dilahap habis oleh Yeyes).
English is studied by all high school students. (Bahasa Inggris dipelajari oleh semua murid sekolah menengah lanjutan (SMP dan SMA).

EXERCISE:
• Ubahlah kalimat The simple present tense berikut menjadi kalimat pasif.
1. Those clever students study English everyday.
2. My private secretary always types my letters quickly.
3. My younger sister makes cakes with me in the kitchen.
4. We find pearls in oysters.
5. The driver washes the car every morning.

• Ubahlah kalimat berikut menjadi kalimat pasif.
1. He was preparing an extra flight.
2. I have reserved a table for two.
3. They don’t accept credit cards.
4. We sold the business at a loss.
5. I don’t need your clarity.

CONDITIONAL “IF”

Conditional (Kalimat Pengandaian) menjelaskan bahwa sebuah kegiatan bertentangan dengan kegiatan yang lain. Conditional yang paling umum adalah Real Conditonal dan Unreal Conditonal, kadang-kadang disebut juga if-clauses.

Real Conditional (sering juga disebut juga dengan Conditional Tipe I) yang menggambarkan tentang mengandai-andai sesuai dengan fakta.

Unreal Conditional (sering juga disebut sebagai Conditional Tipe II) yang menggambarkan tentang pengandaian yang tidak nyata atau berimajinasi.

Ada juga Conditional yang ke-3 yang sering disebut dengan Conditional Tipe III, digunakan sebagai penyesalan yang terjadi di masa lampau dan zero conditional, digunakan untuk mengekspresikan sesuatu yang sudah pasti benar.

Catatan: Jika  klausa "if" diletakkan di awal kalimat, kita harus menggunakan �koma�. Sebaliknya jika klausa "if" berada di belakang, maka tidak perlu ada koma

Zero Conditional

Digunakan untuk mengekspresikan kebenaran umum. Tense yang digunakan biasanya Present Simple Tense

Rumus

(Klausa IF)	(Induk Kalimat)
If you heat water to 100�C,	it boils.

Atau

(Induk Kalimat)	(Klausa IF)
Water boils	if you heat it to 100�C,

Contoh:

• If you drop an apple, it falls. = An apple falls, if you drop it.
• If you don't do your homework, I will be disappointed. = I will be disappointed, if you don't do your homework.

Catatan: Pada tipe ini, �if� sering digantikan dengan "when"

Conditional I

Digunakan untuk mengekspresikan pengandaian yang dibuat berdasarkan fakta di masa sekarang atau masa yang akan datang dan pengandaian ini bisa saja terjadi. Klausa �if� biasanya dalam bentuk Present Simple Tense.

FORM: (IF + THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE + THE FUTURE TENSE)

Real conditional sentences adalah kalimat yang akan terjadi atau tidak akan terjadi (mungkin terjadi) tergantung pada suatu kondisi atau keadaan
CONTOH:
Conditional sentences which may or may not happen (kalimat ‘conditional’ yang mungkin terjadi dan mungkin juga tidak terjadi)
• If it rains, I will not go
(We do not know yet wheter it will rain, may be it will rain. Maybe it won’t)
• If you insist, he will let you have it
(we do not know yet wheter you will insist. Maybe you will insist. Maybe you won’t)
• If she loves you, she will be happy for you.
(we do not know yet wheter she will love you. Maybe she will love you. Maybe she won’t).
“Kalimat utama di atas akan terjadi jika kondisi dalam If-clause terpenuhi. Kalau kondisi pada If-clause tidak terpenuhi, maka main clause-nya tidak akan terjadi.

Rumus

(Klausa IF)	(Induk Kalimat)
If I see you tomorrow,	I will buy you a drink.

Atau

(Induk Kalimat)	(Klausa IF)
I will buy you a drink	if I see you tomorrow.

Kita sering menggunakan unless yang artinya 'jika... tidak�.

Rumus

(Klausa IF)	(Induk Kalimat)
Unless you hand in your homework,	I won't mark it.
Artinya
If you don't hand in your homework,	I won't mark it.

Atau

(Induk Kalimat)	(Klausa IF)
I won't mark your homework	unless you hand it in.
Artinya
I won't mark your homework	if you don't hand it in.

Catatan: Kita tidak pernah menggunakan will, atau won't dalam Klausa IF.

Contoh:

• If I have time today, I will phone my friend. = I will phone my friend, if I have time today.
• If I go to England, I will buy some Cheddar cheese. = I will buy some Cheddar cheese, if I go to England.

Conditional Tipe II

Digunakan untuk mengekspresikan situasi yang tidak nyata di masa sekarang atau masa yang akan datang. Tipe ini digunakan untuk mengekspresikan sebuah harapan. Tenses yang digunakan dalam klausa IF adalah Past Simple Tense.

FORM: (IF + THE SIMPLE PAST TENSE + THE PAST FUTURE TENSE)

‘Unreal Conditional Sentences in the present’ adalah kalimat yang tidak sesuai dengan kenyataan yang ada sekarang di hadapan kita.
CONTOH:
Conditional sentences which is contrary to the fact at present (kalimat ‘conditional’ yang bertolak belakang dengan kenyataan saat ini)
• If I were in town, I would go.
(I am not in town)
• If I took the plane, I would get there fast.
(I don’t take the plane)
• If I knew, I would tell you.
(I don’t know)

 

Rumus

(Klausa IF)	(Induk Kalimat)
If I won the lottery,	I would buy a new house.

Atau

(Induk Kalimat)	(Klausa IF)
I would buy a new house	if I won the lottery.

Catatan: Jangan gunakan would atau wouldn't dalam Klausa IF.

Contoh:

�         If I were you, I wouldn't do that. = I wouldn't do that, if I were you.

�         If I had more time, I would do more on my websites. = I would do more on my websites, if I had more time.

Conditional Tipe III

Digunakan untuk mengekspresikan sebuah kondisi di masa yang lampau yang tidak mungkin akan terjadi lagi. Sering digunakan untuk mengkritik atau penyesalan. Tenses yang digunakan dalam Klausa IF adalah Past Perfect Tense.

FORM: (IF + THE PAST PERFECT TENSE, + THE PAST FUTURE PERFECT TENSE)

‘Unreal conditional sentence in the past’ adalah kalimat yang tidak sesuai dengan kenyataan yang terjadi di masa lampau.
CONTOH:
• If I had know it, I would have told you.
(I didn’t know it, or I haven’t known it.)
• If you had told me, I would have defended you.
(You didn’t tell me, or you haven’t told me.)
• If she hadn’t come late, She would have defended you.
(She came late, or she has come late.)

 

 

Rumus

(Klausa IF)	(Induk Kalimat)
If I had worked harder,	I would have passed my exam.
If I had worked harder,	I could have passed my exam.
If I had worked harder,	I should have passed my exam.

Atau

(Induk Kalimat)	(Klausa IF)
I would have passed my exam	if I had worked harder.
I could have passed my exam	if I had worked harder.
I should have passed my exam	if I had worked harder.

Catatan: Jangan gunakan would have atau wouldn't have, dll dalam Klausa IF.

Contoh:

• If I hadn't helped you, you would have failed. = You would have failed, if I hadn't helped you.
• If it had been sunny, we could have gone out. = We could have gone out, if it had been.

EXERCISE:
• Lengkapilah kalimat Conditional di bawah ini dengan kata kerja yang tepat.
1. I would have told you if I (know) it.
2. If I (be) home, I will talk to you.
3. If I (be) you, I would forgive him.
4. If it (not, be) hot, I will drink it.
5. We (not, be) friends if it hadn’t met you.

• Buat lah kalimat Conditional berdasarkan informasi di bawah ini. Mulailah kalimatnya dengan IF.
1. I am not rich. _____________________________
2. I don’t have a car. __________________________
3. I didn’t report it to the police. ________________
4. My friends are waiting for me. ________________
5. I didn’t know that she had been home. _________

• Modify the words in the brackets below using conditional so your sentences will have conditional meanings.
1. Manager: I’m going to hire a driver who can drive a Volvo. But I don’t have much time to seek.
Employee: I know someone you want. (meet/tell) him to come to you.
2. Customer: is there a discount for this wardrobe?
Shopkeeper: Sorry, sir, not this month. (have discount program/call you soon. Now we need your phone number.
3. You are not the President of this country. You want to raise the tax of imported cars.
4. You do not have a lof money. You want to buy a licence of MC. Donald.
5. The buyer from the United States is still upset about the last shipment. He does not want to Buy furniture from us anymore.

Modal Auxiliary Verbs (Kata Kerja Bantu Modal)

1. Apa itu Modal Auxiliary Verb?
Kata kerja can, could, may, might, will, would, shall (biasanya dalam Inggris British), should, must, dan ought to disebut ’modal auxiliary verb’ (kata kerja bantu modal). Mereka digunakan sebelum infinitive atau kata kerja lainnya, dan menambah makna tertentu. Need, dare, dan had better kadang juga bisa digunakan seperti modal auxiliary verb.
2. Grammar
a. Kata kerja modal tidak memiliki –s pada orang ketiga tunggal (third person singular)
She may know his address. (not…She mays…)
b. Kalimat tanya, negative, tags, dan jawaban singkat dibentuk tanpa menggunakan do.
Can you swim? (not…Do you can swim?)
He shouldn’t be doing that, should he? (not…He doesn’t should…)
c. Setelah kata kerja modal, kita gunakan infinitive tanpa to terhadap kata kerja lainnya, kecuali ought.
I must water the flowers. (not…I must to water…)
Kata kerja modal ini juga bisa digunakan dalam tenses continous, perfect, dan pasif.
I may not be working tomorrow.
She was so angry she could have killed him.
The kitchen ought to be painted one of these days.

d. Kata kerja modal tidak memiliki infinitive atau participle (to may, maying, mayed, tidak ada sama sekali) dan mereka tidak memiliki bentuk lampau/past walaupun would, could, should, dan might terkadang bisa digunakan dalam bentuk past tense dari will, can, shall, dan may. Ekspresi dalam bentuk lain bisa digunakan ketika diperlukan.
I’d like to be able to skate. (not…to can skate)
People really had to work hard in those days. (not…People really musted work…)
e. Bagaimanapun, kalimat dalam bentuk past bisa diekspresikan dengan menggunakan modal verb yang diikuti dengan perfect infinitive (have + past participle)
You should have told me you were coming.
I think I may have annoyed Aunt Mary.
f. Modal verb memiliki bentuk negative singkat (can’t, won’t etc) yang biasa digunakan secara informal. (Shan’t dan mayn’t hanya digunakan dalan British English; bahkan mayn’t sangat jarang digunakan). Will dan would juga memiliki bentuk afirmasi singkat (‘ll, ‘d)
g. There biasa digunakan sebagai preparatory subject dengan modal verbs, terutama ketika diikuti oleh be
There may be rain later today.
3. Makna
Modal verb tidak digunakan untuk mengatakan bahwa suatu keadaan benar-benar terjadi atau peristiwa tersebut benar telah terjadi. Kita gunakan modal verb, sebagai contohnya, untuk mengatakan suatu hal yang kita harapkan, yang mungkin atau tidak mungkin, yang kita anggap penting, yang kita inginkan terjadi, yang kita tidak yakin mengenainya, yang cenderung akan terjadi, atau yang tidak terjadi.
He may arrive any time.
She could be in London or Paris or Tokyo – nobody knows.
I can’t swim.
I think you ought to see a lawyer.
We really must tidy up the garden.
What would you do if you had a free year?
Edinburgh can be very cold in winter.
I think they should have consulted a doctor earlier.
You might have told me Frances was ill.

The Modal Auxiliary Verbs

The modal auxiliary verbs adalah kata-kata seperti can, will, shall, may, might, should, ought to, must, could yang digunakan bersama dengan kata kerja dan ditempatkan di depan subyek.

Ø The Modal auxiliary verb dan kata kerja yang mengikutinya tidak mengalami perubahan untuk orang dan jumlah
Ø The modal auxiliary verb ditempatkan segera sesudah subyek kalimat.

FORM: SUBJECT + THE MODAL AUXILIARY + INFINITIVE

(Positive) They can do it
(Negative) They can not do it
(Questions) Can they do it:
Short Answer Yes, they can/not, they can’t

Bentuk dan arti dari the modal auxiliary verbs:

1. Will (Future)
• They will come here on time

2. Could (ability in the past, possibility)
• She could climb when she wa still young. (ability in the past)
• She could come in a minute. (possibility)

3. Can (ability, permission)
• He can play the pino. (ability)
• They can play football here. (Permission)

4. May (Pemission, possibility)
• The children may play here. (permission)
• He may get a raise. (possibility)

5. Might (Possibility)
• He might get a rise in his salary. (possibility)

6. Should/ought to (obligation, desirability)
• Students ought to/should study regularly. (obligation)
• You ought not to/shouldn’t drink and drive. (desirability)

7. Must (conclusion, probability, necessity)
• He must be twenty years old. (conclusion, probability)
• You must be hungry. (conclusion, probability)
• You must study tonight.



EXERCISE:
• Tambahlan to dimana perlu, Jika to tidak diperlukan, tulislah Æ dibagian yang kosong.
1. I have ... go down tomorrow.
2. Tom can ... play soccer.
3. Could you please ... open the window?
4. The students must ... learn all of the irregular verbs.
5. Sally has ... do her history.
6. I think you should ... take better care of yourself.
7. I ought ... go to the office this afternoon.
8. Would you ... speak more slowly, please?
9. We may ... go to Argentina for our vacation.
10. Will you please ... mail this letter for me?

• Lengkapi kalimat dengan can dan can’t
1. A cat ... climb trees, but it ... fly
2. A fish ... walk, but it ... swim
3. A dog ... bark, but it ... sing
4. You ... buy stamps at the post office, but you ... buy shoes there.
5. A tiny baby ... cry, but it ... talk
6. I ... write with a pen, but I ... write with a paper clip
7. I ... read book by noonlight, but I ... read in sunlight.
8. Trees ... produce oxygen, but rocks ... .
9. Fish ... live in air, but they ... live in water.
10. You ... store water in a glass jar, but you ... store it in a paper bag.

Adjective/Reative Clauses

An adjective clause is a subordinate clause that functions as an adjective by describing a noun or a pronoun inh another clause. Adjective clauses are also called relative clause because they are normally introduced by a relative pronoun such as who, whom, that, which, whose, where, when, why.

Adjective Clause dinamakan juga RELATIVE CLAUSE yaitu Clause (anak kalimat) yang digunakan/berfungsi sebagai adjective yang menerangkan keadaan noun atau pronoun. Untuk lebih jelasnya penjelasan mengenai Adjective Clause, perhatikan penjelasan di bawah ini:

Contoh:

• I have read the book (that) you just mentioned.
  
  Main Clause: I have read the book.
  Subordinate Clause: (that) you just mentioned.

Anak kalimat menerangkan kata benda the book, disebut dengan Adjective Clause

• The lesson (that) she is learning is very difficult.
  
  Main Clause: The lesson is very difficult.
  Subordinate Clause: (that) she is learning.

Berdasarkan pada the Antecedent yang ditunjuk oleh introductory words (kata-kata pendahulunya), Adjective Clause dapat diklasifikasikan menjadi 2 macam, yaitu:

1. Relative Pronoun

• Kata Ganti Orang
  
  Kata Penghubung yang digunakan adalah : Who, Whom, Whose, That
  
  Fungsi :
  
  a. Subjek:
  
  - He paid the money to the man who / that had done the work
  
  b. Objek Kata Kerja:
  
  - He paid the man whom/that he had hired.
  
  c. Objek Kata Depan:
  
  - He paid the man from whom he had borrowed the money.
  
  d. Kata Ganti Kepunyaan:
  
  - This is the girl whose picture you saw.

• Benda, Binatang
  
  Kata Penghubung yang digunakan adalah: Which, that
  
  Fungsi:
  
  a. Subjek:
  
  - Here is a book which/that describes animals.
  
  b. Objek Kata Kerja:
  
  - The chair which/that he broke is being repaired.
  
  c. Objek Kata Depan:
  
  - She was wearing the coat for which she had paid $2,00.

2. Relative Adverbs

• Waktu
  
  Kata Penghubung yang digunakan: when
  
  - This is the year when the Olympic Games are held.

• Tempat
  
  Kata Penghubung yang digunakan: where
  
  - Here is the house where I live.

• Alasan
  
  Kata Penghubung yang digunakan: when
  
  - Give me one good reason why you did that.

_________________________

1. Relative Pronoun

Yaitu Adjective Clause dengan memakai kata penghubung Relative Pronoun.

• The boy is called Bob. He gave me a present.
• The boy who gave me a present is called Bob. atau
• The boy who is called Bob gave me a present.

Beberapa contoh Adjective Clause lainnya:

• The boy whose radio was stolen is a student.
• The girl whom I gave a special reward is a bright student.
• The bike which I borrowed last week was sold.

2. Relative Adverb

Pelajaran tentang ini dibahas lebih lengkap pada Relative Clause. Hal-hal yang perlu ditambahkan di sini, yaitu:

• Kata Why (yang menunjukkan alasan) yang menjadi Adverb penghubung, mungkin (kadang-kadang) dapat digantikan dengan that atau kadang-kadang dapat dihilangkan dalam kalimat.
  
  - The reason (that) I came should be obvious to you.
  - The reason (why) I came should be obvious to you.
  - The reason I came should be obvious to you.

• When atau Where Bering dapat Baling ditukarkan dengan Preposition yang menunjukkan tempat (a preposition of Place) ditambah dengan Which.
  
  - The small town in which (= where) I was born has grown to a large metropolis.
  - The day on which (= when) they were to leave finally arrived.

Kadang-kadang that dapat menggantikan where atau when.

• The day that (or when, on which) the trial was to take place was a stormy one.
• Please suggest a good place that (or where) we can meet

Beberapa Hal Penting yang Berkaitan dengan Adjective Clause

• Perubahan dari Adjective Clause menjadi Adjective Phrase.
• Adjective Clause dapat dirubah menjadi Adjective Phrase yang menjelaskan noun tanpa ada perubahan arti kalimat.
• Hanya Adjective Clause yang mempunyai subjek pronoun: who, which atau that yang dapat dirubah menjadi Adjective Phrase.
• Adjective Clause dengan subjek: whom tidak dapat dirubah menjadi Adjective Phrase.
  
  Perhatikan Contoh berikut:
  
  a. Adjective Clause
  
  * The girl who is sitting next to me is Lisa.
  ==> The boy is playing the piano is Bent.
  
  b. Adjective Phrase
  
  * The girl sitting next to me is Lisa.
  ==> The boy playing the piano is Bent.

• Cara mengubah Adjective Clause menjadi Adjective Phrase.
  
  (1) Subjek pronoun dan verb be dihilangkan.
  
  * Adjective Clause: The man who is talking to Taylor is from Japan.
  * Adjective Phrase: The man talking to Taylor is from Japan.
  
  * Adjective Clause: The ideas which are presented in that book are interesting.
  * Adjective Phrase: The ideas presented in that book are interesting.
  
  * Adjective Clause: Ali is the man who is responsible for preparing the budget.
  * Adjective Phrase: Ali is the man responsible for preparing the budget.
  
  * Adjective Clause: The books that are on the shelf are mine.
  * Adjective Phrase: The books on the shelf are mine.
  
  (2) Jika tidak ada verb be dalam Adjective Clause, seringkali subjek pronoun dapat dihilangkan dan mengubah kata kerja dalam Clause itu menjadi bentuk -ing.
  
  * Adjective Clause: English has an alphabet that consists of 26 letters.
  * Adjective Phrase: English has an alphabet  consisting of 26 letters.
  
  * Adjective Clause: Anyone who wants to come with us is welcome.
  * Adjective Phrase: Anyone wanting to come with us is welcome.

• Seringkali Adjective Clause digunakan dalam pola: noun + of which. Pola ini terutama digunakan untuk tulisan bahasa Inggris resmi (formal written English). Dalam pola ini biasanya Adjective Clause menerangkan "sesuatu".
  
  * We have an antique table. The top of it has jade inlay.
• We have an antique table, the top of which has jade inlay.
• We toured a 300-year-old house. The exterior of the house consisted of logs cemented with clay.
• We toured a 300-year-old house, the exterior of which consisted of logs cemented with lay.

• Adjective Clause sering digunakan untuk mengungkapkan kuantitas dengan of. Ungkapan kuantitas mendahului pronoun, dan hanya whom, which, dan whose yang digunakan dalam pola ini.
  
  Ungkapan kuantitas dengan "of" antara lain: some of, none of, both of, one of, many of, two of, all of, each of, most of, dll.
  
  * There are 20 students in my class. Most of them are from the Outside Java.
  --> There are 20 students in my class, most of whom are from the Outside Java.
  
  * He gave several reasons. Only a few of them were valid.
  --> He gave several reasons, only a few of which were valid.

• Tanda Baca pada Adjective Clauses
  
  Pedoman umum dalam Tanda Baca pada Adjective Clauses yaitu:
• Jangan menggunakan tanda koma bila Adjective Clause diperlukan untuk mengidentifikasi noun yang dijelaskan olehnya.
• Gunakanlah tanda koma bila Adjective Clause hanya berfungsi untuk memberi informasi tambahan dan tidak dimaksudkan untuk mengidentifikasi noun yang dijelaskan olehnya.
• Henry whose wife works at a bank came to my house yesterday.
• Alex, whose wife works at a bank, came to my house yesterday.

Keterangan:

Contoh pertama menggambarkan bahwa Henry memiliki lebih dari 1 istri. Pada kalimat tersebut pembicara ingin mengindentifikasikan istrinya yang bekerja di Bank, bukan yang lainnya.

Sedangkan pada kalimat kedua, kita sudah jelas, kalau Alex memiliki hanya 1 orang istri. Frase yang berada di antara koma hanya memberikan keterangan tambahan saja. Tanpa frase tersebut pun orang lain sudah mengetahuinya kalau istrinya Alex memang bekerja di sebuah Bank karena memang istrinya cuma 1 itu.

Perhatikan contoh berikut ini untuk lebih jelasnya dalam penggunaan tanda koma dalam Adjective Clause.

• Soekarno, who is the first President of Republic of Indonesia, could deliver speech well.

Perbedaan antara Adjective Clause dan Noun Clause

Karena adanya kesamaan dalam beberapa kata pendahulunya, maka kadang-kadang antara Noun Clause dan Adjective Clause sering membingungkan.

Ada 2 macam perbedaan yang penting antara dua jenis Clause tersebut: perhatikan contoh berikut ini:

• Adjective Clause biasanya didahului oleh noun atau pronoun yang diterangkan.
  
  Adjective Clause
• I know the house where he lives.

(where he lives mempunyai antecedent the house, yang merupakan objek dari kata know)

Noun Clause

• I know where he lives.

(where he lives adalah objek dari kata know)

Preposisi yang mendahului introductory word adalah milik Adjective Clause dan bukan milik Noun Clause.

Adjective Clause

• The woman to whom he has been giving money is a poor relative of his.

(Adjective Clause dimulai dengan to yang merupakan bentuk a prepositional phrase dengan whom dalam Adjective Clause itu. Dan To dapat diletakkan di bagian belakang Adjective Clause. The woman, whom he has been giving money to, is a poor relative of his).

Noun Clause

• He gives money to whoever needs it.

(The Noun Clause dimulai dengan whoever, seluruh Noun Clause itu adalah objek dari to, yang tidak dapat dipindah letaknya. Dan juga -ever- merupakan bentuk yang hanya bergandeng (mengikuti) dengan Noun Clause.

Adjective clause THAT and WHICH
1. Study these examples:
• Where are the eggs?
• They were in the fridge.
We can combine two sentences above using relative clause.
Where are the eggs? They were in the fridge.
- Where are the eggs that were in the fridge

2. We can use that or which in relative clause, when we are talking about things.
• A dictionary is a book which/that gives you tile meaning of words.
• The earth is the only planet which/that can support life.
• What was the name of the horse which/that won the race.

Adjective Clauses WHO and WHOM
1. Study these examples:
• The woman who wants to study with me is very beautiful
• The man whom I wanted to see was away on holiday. (I wanted to see him)
Clause is a part of a sentence.
A Adjective clause tell us which person or thing (or what kind of person or thing) the speaker means.

2. We use who in relative clause when we are talking about people. We use who instead of he/she/they.
It is also possible to use that instead who
• An architect is someone who design buildings.
• What was the name of the woman who tent you the money
• The boy who was injured in the accident is my neighbour.

3. Whom is possible instead who (for people) when it is the object of the verb in adjective clause.
• The man I wanted to see was away on holiday.
The man – I wanted to see him – was away on holiday
The man who/whom I wanted to see was away on holiday
• The girl Tommy is going to many is American. (= the girl who/whom Tommy is going to
many)

4. We also use whom when it is the object of the verb in adjective clause.
• The girl whom he fell in love was a clever student in her university.
• My sister whom you once met, is visiting us next week.
• John whom I have known for eight years, ia one of my closest friends.




EXERCISE:
Combine two sentences to form one using relative clause (which or that)

1. The secretary is looking for the newspaper. It was on the desk.
2. He worked for a mine. The mine took many lives ten years ago.
3. The manager has moved to a new office room. The office room used to be mine.
4. English is studied in Economic Faculty at the third semester. Is is a world language.
5. Mr. Clifford sat a desk. The desk was full of books and filing cabinet.
6. Every file saves in an appropriate cabinet. The cabinet called filing cabinet.
7. You can ask to other cunsomers about new products. The products are used to make people’s skin become white in a short time without bad effect.
8. Many customers choose the products from a shelf. The shelf contains many different productsfrom different factories.
9. A progressive leader is responsible for company’s future. The future has to be planned now.
10. Each management company should have a blue print. It is used to plan for achieving company’s objectives.



EXERCISE:
Combine two sentences to form one using adjective clause (Who and Whom)
1. The manager is a very qualified man. He graduated from Oxford University.
2. The amateur works in finance department of the company. He has not got any experience.
3. The woman was robbed this morning. She got out the bank with 6000 dollars in her purse.
4. The customer has bought a new car from our dealer. You talked to him yesterday.
5. The man has opened a new business. The bank gave him a loan.
6. The woman works for an air travel agency now. You fired her last month.
7. The salesman stood there for an hour. He was waiting for his customer.

Gerund

GERUND adalah kata kerja yang digunakan atau berfungsi sebagai kata benda. Atau dapat juga dikatakan bahwa gerund adalah kata kerja yang dibendakan.

FORM: INFINITIVE (KATA BENDA) + ING

Contoh:
Cleaning (membersihkan), collecting (mengumpulkan), swimming (berenang), climbing (memanjat), teaching (mengajar), smoking (merokok), reading (membaca), singing (bernyanyi), traveling (berpergian), fishing (memancing), etc.
Apabila dilihat bentuk gerund ini sama dengan present participle yang merupakan kata kerja (verb). Tetapi akan terlihat perbedaannya bila terletak dalam sebuah kalimat. Perhatikan baik-baik antara kata kerja (verb) dengan gerund (kata kerja yang dibendakan).

Contoh:
• Climbing is my hobby (Gerund)
Memanjat adalah hobby ku.
• He is climbing the wallb (Present Participle/verb-ing)
Dia sedang memanjat tembok.
Sebagai kata benda, gerund dapat didahului oleh kata sandang (article), kata ganti kepunyaan/kepemilikann (possessive pronoun), kata ganti penunjuk (demonstrative pronoun), dan juga kata sifat (adjective).
Contoh:
• We don’t like their smoking in the class.
Kami tidak suka mereka merokok di dalam kelas.
• This mountain has beautiful surroundings.
Pegunungan ini dikelilingi keindahan.
Karena gerund dipergunakan sebagai kata benda (noun), maka didalam kalimat, gerund dapat digunakan:

1. Sebagai Subyek.
Apabila gerund sebagai subjek, maka gerund dapat berdiri sendiri atau berbentuk sebagai frasa (phrase). contoh:
• Fishing makes me very happy
• Singing is my hobby

2. Sebagai Obyek
Sebagai obyek gerund memiliki dua kemunginan yaitu sebagai:
a. Obyek kata kerja (Object of verb) yaitu obyek yang digunakan setela kata kerja. Tetapi tidak semua kata kerja dapat diikuti oleh gerund, hanya beberapa kata kerja saja yang dapat diikutioleh gerund, yaitu:
Involve, imagine, forgive, finish, begin, continue, intend, needs, requires, want, try, start, love, dislike, like, admit, understand, suggest, anticipate, appreciate, avoid, consider, delay, detest, enjoy, excuse, escape, save, risk, prevent, postpone, miss, mind, mention.
Contoh penggunaannya dalam kalimat:
• I finish working at five o’clock p.m
• I like fishing on Sunday.
b. Obyek kata depan (object of preposition) yaitu obyek yang digunakan setelah kata depan.
Seperti fungsinya sebagai obyek maka gerund diletakkan setelah kata depan.
Contoh:
• She always eat without drinking
• They are always careful in working

3. Sebagai Compound Noun (kata majemuk) yang mengandung arti alat atau tempat.
Contoh: Writing paper (Kertas tulis), Dinning table (Meja makan), shopping bag (tas belanja), racing car (mobil balap), swimming pool (kolam renang), swimming suit (pakaian renang), shopping centre (pusat perbelanjaan), reading book (buku bacaan), etc.

4. Untuk membuat suatu larangan atau peringatan yang singkat.
Contoh:
• No smoking, No spitting, no parking, warning
5. Bersama dengan ungkapan-ungkapan tertentu atau phrase (frasa), misalnya:
• it’s no use, it’s no good, it’s worth, busy, fancy, can’t help, can’t stand, etc.
Contoh penggunaannya dalam kalimat:
• It’s no use working without paid
• Let’s go walking again














EXERCISE:
• Lengkapi kalimat dengan menggunakan gerund. Tambahkan preposisi di belakang jika perlu.
1. It wa cold and rainy yesterday, so we postponed GOING TO/ VISITING the botanical gardens.
2. The porter’s house is too small. They’re considering ... a bigger house.
3. We discuss ... Colorado for our vacation.
4. When Martha finished ... the floor, she dusted the furniture.
5. Sometimes students put off ... their homework.
6. We had a blizzard yesterday, but it finally stopped ... around ten P.M
7. I quit ... comic books when I was twelve years old.
8. I’m thinking about ... a biology course next semester
9. Beth doesn’t like her job. She’s talking about ... a different job.
10. I enjoy ... sports.

 

THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON

Tingkat Perbandingan

Kata sifat kuantitatif much dan little, dan kata sifat bilangan many and few, mempunyai tingkat

perbandingan (degrees comparison).

The degrees of comparison (tingkat perbandingan) berjumlah tiga tingkat, yaitu :

1. The positive degree (tingkat biasa)

2. The comparative (tingkat lebih/perbandingan)

3. The superlative (tingkat paling)

1) Kata sifat yang terdiri dari satu suku kata dan beberapa kata sifat bersuku kata dua dapat dibentuk comparative dengan menambahkan er atau r, dan superlative dengan menambahkan -est atau -st.

a) Jika positive berakhir dalam dua huruf mati atau dalam satu huruf mati yang didahului oleh dua huruf hidup, er dan est ditambahkan

Positive thick long short

Comparative thicker longer shorter

Superlative thickest longest shortest

b) Jika positive berakhir dalam satu huruf mati dan huruf mati itu didahului oleh sebuah vokal pendek, huruf mati terakhir digandakan kemudian ditambahkan er dan est

Positive big = besar wet = basah hot = panas

Comparative bigger = lebih besar wetter = lebih basah hotter = lebih panas

Superlative biggest = terbesar wettest = terbasah hottest = terpanas

c) Jika positive berakhir huruf e, hanya r dan st ditambahkan

Positive nice = baik fine = bagus wise = bijaksana

Comparative nicer = lebih baik finer = lebih bagus wiser = lebih bijak

Superlative nicest = terbaik finest = terbagus wisest = terbijaksana

d) Jika positive berakhir huruf y, dan y itu didahului oleh huruf mati, y diubah menjadi I, lalu ditambahkan er dan est

Positive wry = miring dry = kering happy = bahagia

Comparative wrier = lebih miring drier = lebih kering happier = lebih bahagia

Superlative wriest =paling miring driest = terkering happiest = terbahagia

e) Jika y didahului oleh sebuah huruf hidup, y tidak diubah menjadi i, tapi langsung ditambahkan r dan est

Positive gay = riang coy = pemalu grey = mendung

Comparative gayer = lebih riang coyer = lebih pemalu greyer = lebih mendung

Superlative gayest = teriang coyest = terpemalu greyest = termendung

f) Kata sifat yang terdiri dari dua suku kata (two syllables) yang berakhiran some, ow, le, er, ditambahkan er dan est

Positive wholesome narrow noble clever

Comparative wholesomer narrower nobler clever

Superlative wholesomest narrowest noblest cleverest

2) Kata sifat yang bersuku kata dua – two syllables (yang tekanan suaranya jatuh pada suku kata awal) atau lebih, ditambahkan more untuk membentuk comperatives dan most untuk superlatives

Positive famous = terkenal useful = berguna beautiful = cantik

Comparative more famous more useful more beautiful

Superlative most famous most useful most beautiful

3) Beberapa kata sifat dibentuk dengan cara tak beraturan (irregular) untuk comparatives dan superlatives

Positive fore bad ill evil good hind late late little much nigh old old near

Comparative former worse worse worse better hinder later latter less more nigher older elder nearer

Superlative foremost,first worst worst worst best hindmost latest last least most nighest,next oldest eldest nearest

Catatan 1 :

a) Former = yang terlebih dahulu/tadi ; yang pertama (di antara dua benda).

Contoh: I prefer the former fabric. Saya lebih menyukai kain yang terlebih dahulu

Of the two methods I prefer the former. Diantara kedua metoda itu saya lebih menyukai yang pertama

b) Later = yang belakangan

Contoh: I will take the later plane. Saya mau naik kapal terbang yang belakangan

c) Latter = yang belakangan/yang terakhir (di antara dua benda)

Contoh: I will take the latter book. Saya mau membeli buku yang terakhir (di antara dua buah buku)

d) Latest = yang belakangan/yang terakhir sampai sekarang

Contoh: What is the latest news of the war? bagaimanakah kabar terbaru (terakhir) perang itu?

e) Last = yang terakhir (yang paling akhir/penghabisan)

Contoh: This is our last opportunity. Inilah kesempatan terakhir kita

Z is the last letter of the alphabet. Z adalah huruf terakhir abjad

Penjelasan :

Later berarti yang belakangan atau lebih lambat, menunjuk pada waktu

Contoh: She came to school later than I. Ia datang ke sekolah lebih lambat daripada saya

Latter menunjuk pada urutan yang kedua di antara dua hal atau benda yang baru saja disebut

Contoh: Alexandria and Cairo are large cities; the latter has a population of over a million.

Alexandria dan Kairo adalah kota besar ; yang belakangan (yaitu Kairo) mempunyai penduduk lebih dari satu juta orang

Latest berarti yang terakhir sampai sekarang, sedangkan last berarti yang paling terakhir atau

penghabisan.

Jika kita katakan :

Did you read Mr. Green’s latest book? apakah anda membaca buku terakhir/terbaru Tuan Green?

Ini berarti bahwa Tn. Green boleh jadi akan mengarang lagi buku lain.

Kalau kita katakan :

Did you read Mr. Green’s last book? apakah anda membaca buku terakhir Tn. Green?

Ini berarti bahwa Tn. Green tidak atau tidak akan menulis buku lain lagi setelah buku yang

dimaksudkan tadi.

Catatan 2 :

a) Elder juga bentuk comperative dari old. Perhatikan perbedaan pemakaian elder dan older.

Contoh: John is my elder brother. John adalah kakak laki-laki saya

John is older than Lisa. John lebih tua daripada Lisa

b) Eldest juga bentuk superlative dari old. Perhatikan perbedaan pemakaian eldest dan oldest:

She is my eldest daughter. Ia putriku yang sulung

That is the oldest hotel in the city. Itulah hotel yang tertua di kota ini

Penjelasan :

Elder dan eldest dipakai pada orang saja, dan paling sering dipakai pada orang dalam hubungan

kekeluargaan. Sedangkan older dan oldest dipakai untuk menyatakan umur atau usia yang lebih tua atau tertua pada orang atau pun benda.

4) Ada enam buah kata adverbs (kata keterangan) dalam bentuk positive degrees, tetapi adjectives (kata sifat) dalam bentuk comparative dan supelative

Positive fore far in out neath up

Comparative further farther inner outer nether upper

Superlative furthest farthest innermost, inmost uttermost, utmost nethermost uppermost

5) Kata-kata sifat tertentu tidak dapat diperbandingkan

perfect = sempurna

unique = unik

supreme = tertinggi

preferable = lebih baik

natural = alamiah

right = benar

wrong = salah

etc.

POSITIVE DEGREE (tingkat positif) digunakan untuk menunjukkan bahwa sesuatu itu sama tingkatannya. Perbandingan untuk sesuatu yang tingkatannya sama digunakan as … as.

Contoh: Ali is 1,6 meters and Anwar is also 1,6 meters.

Ali is AS TALL AS Anwar.

This book cost Rp. 2.000,-. That book costs Rp. 2.000,-

This book is AS EXPENSIVE AS that one

Bentuk negatif dari perbandingan ini adalah sebagai berikut:

Contoh: Jakarta is not AS WARM AS Surabaya.

Rumus :

as + positive + as

no less + positive + than

not more + positive + than

Contoh:

This girl is as clever as that. Anak perempuan ini sepandai anak perempuan itu

This girl is no less clever than that. Anak perempuan ini sama pandainya dengan anak perempuan itu

That girl is not more clever than this. Gadis itu tidak lebih pandai daripada gadis ini

(berarti gadis itu dan gadis ini sama pandainya)

B. COMPARATIVE DEGREE digunakan apabila dua orang atau benda dikatakan tidak sama dalam hal sifat yang tertentu Yang satu lebih dari yang lain. Tingkat perbandingan dinyatakan dengan menggunakan “-er” jika kata sifat itu hanya memiliki satu suku kata (one syllable) serta di tambah kata “than.”

Contoh: Handi is TALLER than Anton

A train is FASTER than a bus

Jika kata sifat itu diakhiri dengan le, r, ow, y, maka tambahkan “-er”. Jika kata sifat diakhiri dengan “y”, maka berubah menjadi “ier.”

Contoh: This problem is simpler than the one we had yesterday.

The street in front of my house is narrower than this one.

Comparative degree yang menggunakan lebih dari satu suku kata (two or more syllables) digunakan “more.” Suku kata maksudnya beautiful = beau-ti-ful (3 suku kata); expensive = ex-pen-sive (tiga suku kata), useful = use-ful (dua suku kata)

Contoh: TV Program are more interesting than radio program.

My trousers are more expensive than yours.

Rumus :

comparative + than

Contoh:

Lisa is taller than her sister. Lisa lebih tinggi daripada saudara perempuannya

Jakarta is bigger than Surabaya. Jakarta lebih besar daripada Surabaya

PERHATIKAN!

Aturan untukk dua suku kata (two syllabels) lebih rumit. Beberapa adjective membentuk comparative and superlative dengan –er, -est., beberapa dengan more, most, yang lainnya boleh kedua-duanya.

Two-syllable adjectives dengan –er, -est

1. Adjective berakhiran –y yang didahului oleh konsonan

Contoh: pretty – prettier, dirty – dirtier, noisy – noisier, happy – happier, unhappy – unhappier

2. Adjective berakhiran –ple, -ble, dan biasanya –tle, -dle

Contoh: simple – simpler, noble – nobler, humble – humbler, subtle – subtler, idle – idler

Two-syllable adjective dengan more, most

1. Sebagian besar adjective berakhir suffix derivatif: -ous, -ish, -ful, -ing, -ed, etc.

Contoh: more famous, more useful, more childish, more interesting, more tired

2. Sebagian besar adjective berakhiran –ct, -nt, -st

Contoh: more exact, more recent, more honest, more urgent

Two-Syllable adjective dengan –er, -est or more, most (yang bentuk –er, -est kurang formal)

1. Adjective berakhiran –er: cleverer, tenderer, bitterer

2. Adjective berakhiran –ow: narrower, shallower, mellower

3. Adjective berakhiran –some: hansomer, wholesomer, lonesomer

4. Others: penekanan pada suku kata pertama: pleasanter, crueler, quieter, stupider

Penekanan pada suku kata kedua: politer, profounder, remoter, obscurer, sincerer, severer, securer

C. SUPERLATIVE DEGREE (tingkat superlative) yaitu apabila seseorang atau sebuah benda dikatakan melebihi atau mengungguli semua orang atau benda yang lain yang sama macamnya, kita menggunakan superlative degree dengan the … of.

Ketika kata sifat terdiri dari satu atau dua suku kata, digunakan dengan menambahkan “est.”

Contoh: The Wisma Nusantara building is THE TALLEST building in Jakarta.

An elephant is THE BIGGEST animal nowadays.

Ketika kata sifat berakhir dengan “y”, maka tingkat superlative berubah menjadi “iest.”

Contoh: Today is THE HAPPIEST day for me. It’s my birthday.

I don’t know which is THE HEAVIEST metal.

Kata sifat yang lebih dari dua suku kata menggunakan “MOST.”

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH


Kalimat Langsung Dan Kalimat Tak Langsung

Bilamana reported speech menyatakan kata-kata yang sebenarnya, ini disebut direct speech (kalimat langsung). Kalimat-kalimat tersebut tidak dihubungkan oleh “that” melainkan harus ditandai dengan (tanda baca) koma.

Bilamana reported speech memberikan isi pokok kata-kata yang dipakai oleh si pembicara dan bukan kata-kata yang sebenarnya ini disebut indirect speech (kalimat tidak langsung). Dalam indirect speech kalimat-kalimat itu dihubungkan dengan kata “that”.

Bentuk waktu reporting verb tidak diubah, akan tetapi bentuk waktu reported speech harus diubah berdasarkan atas bentuk waktu reporting verb.

Dua cara perubahan bentuk waktu pada reported speech :

Peraturan I

Kalau reporting verb itu past tense, bentuk waktu kata kerja dalam reported speech itu harus diubah ke dalam salah satu dari empat bentuk past tense.

Direct Speech - Indirect Speech

Simple present - menjadi - Simple past

He said ” The woman comes “ He said that the woman came

Dari contoh di atas dapat disimpulkan perubahan untuk bentuk waktu dari reported speech sebagai berikut :

Direct Speech                                Indirect speech

Simple present                              simple past

Present continuous                      past continuous

Present perfect                            past perfect

Present perfect continuous        past perfect continuous

Simple past                                  past perfect

Past continuous                          past perfect continuous

Future                                         past future

Present                                       past

 
Kekecualian :

Kalau reported speech berhubungan dengan kebenaran umum atau fakta yang sudah menjadi

kebiasaan, present indefinite atau simple present dalam reported speech tidak diubah ke dalam

bentuk lampau yang sesuai, melainkan tetap persis sebagaimana adanmya, contoh :


Direct Speech - Indirect Speech

He said, “The sun rises in the east” - He said that the sun rises in the east


Dalam reported speech, bila present tense diubah ke dalam past tense dengan peraturan I, kata sifat, kata kerja atau kata keterangan umumnya diubah:


Direct Speech                                        Indirect Speech

this = ini                                                     that = itu

these = ini                                                 those = itu

come = datang                                         go = pergi

here = di sini, ke sini                              there = di sana, ke sana

hence = dari sini                                     thence = dari sana

hither = ke tempat ini                           thither = ke tempat itu

ago = yang lalu                                       before = lebih dahulu

now = sekarang                                     then = pada waktu itu

today = hari ini                                      that day = hari itu

tomorrow = besok                                next day = hari berikutnya   

yesterday = kemarin                           the previous day = sehari sebelumnya

last night = tadi malam                       the previous night = semalam sebelumnya

next week = minggu depan                the following week = minggu berikutnya

thus = begini                                        so = begitu


contoh :

He said, “I will come here”.               He said that he would go there

 
Akan tetapi kalau this, here, now dan sebagainya menunjukan pada benda, tempat atau waktu ketika berbicara, maka tidak dilakukan perubahan.


Agus said, “This is my pen”. - Agus said that this was his pen

(ketika berbicara pena berada di tangan pembicara)


Peraturan II

1) Bila reported speech kalimat berita

Dengan peraturan ini reporting verb dianggap dalam present atau future tense tertentu dan kapan saja ini terjadi, bentuk waktu dari kata kerja dalam reported speech tidak diubah sama sekali dalam mengubah direct menjadi indirect speech.


Reporting verb - Reported speech

Present tense - Any tense (bentuk waktu apapun)


Direct : She says to her friend, ” I have been writing “.

Indirect : She says to her friend that he has been writing. (tidak berubah)


Direct : She has told you, ” I am reading “.

Indirect : She has told you that he is reading. (tidak berubah)


Direct : She will say, ” You have done wrongly “.

Indirect : She will tell you that you have done wrongly. (tidak berubah)


Direct : She will say,” The boy wasn’t lazy “.

Indirect : She will tell them that the boy wasn’t lazy. (tidak berubah)


2) Bila reported speech merupakan kalimat tanya

a) Reporting verb say atau tell diubah menjadi ask atau inquire. Dengan mengulangi kata tanya dan mengubah tenses jika pertanyaannya dimulai dengan kata tanya diberitakan.
Direct

He said to me, “Where are you going?”

He said to me, “What are you doing?”
Indirect

He asked me where I was going

He inquired of me what I was doing


b) Dengan menggunakan if atau whether sebagai penghubung antara reporting verb dan reported speech dan mengubah tenses, jika pertanyaannya dimulai dengan kata kerja diberitakan :


Direct

He said to me, “Are you going

away today?”

He asked me , “can you come along?”
Indirect

He asked me whether I was

going away that day.

He asked me if I could come along.



3) Kalimat perintah (imperative sentences)

Bila reported speech merupakan kalimat perintah, reporting verb say atau tell harus diubah menjadi kata kerja tertentu yang menandakan :

· command (perintah), misalnya ordered, commanded, dsb yang berarti menyuruh, memerintahkan.

· precept (petunjuk, bimbingan, didikan), misalnya advised yang berarti menasehati.

· request (permohonan), misalnya asked yang berarti meminta, memohon.

· entreaty (permohonan yang sangat mendesak), misalnya begged yang berarti meminta, memohon (dengan sangat).

· prohibition (larangan), misalnya forbade yang berarti melarang.


Dalam perubahannya dari kalimat langsung menjadi kalimat tidak langsung, modus imperatif harus diganti dengan infinitif. Tegasnya, reported verb (kata kerja yang diberitakan atau kata kerja dalam reported speech) harus diubah menjadi infinitive with to.


a) Command :

Direct: He said to his servant, “Go away at once!”

Indirect:He ordered his servant to go away at once


b) Precept :

Direct: She said to her son, “Study hard!”

Indirect: He advised her son to study hard


c) Request :

Direct: He said to his friend, “Please lend me your pen!”

Indirect: He asked his friend to be kind enough to lend him his pencil


d) Entreaty :

Direct: He said to his master, “Pardon me, sir”

Indirect: He begged his master to pardon him.


e) Prohibition :

Direct: She said to her daughter, “Don’t go there”

Indirect: She forbade her daughter to go there


Kalau reporting verb say atau tell diubah menjadi reported verb ask, order, command dsb (tapi jika bukan forbid), predikatnya diubah ke dalam infinitive with to yang didahului oleh not atau no + infinitive with to.

Direct: She said to her daughter, “Don’t go there”

Indirect: She asked herdaughter not to go there.


4) Kalimat seru (exclamatory sentences)

Bilamana reported speech terdiri dari kalimat seru atau kalimat optatif, reporting verb say

atau tell harus diubah menjadi kata kerja tertentu yang semacam itu seperti exclaim, cry out,

pray dsb.


a) Exclamatory sentences

Direct: He said, “Hurrah! My old friend has come”

Indirect: He exclaimed with joy that his old friend had come.


b) Optative sentences (kalimat yang menyatakan harapan, pujian, dsb)

Tense change

As a rule when you report something someone has said you go back a tense: (the tense on the left changes to the tense on the right):

Direct speech		Indirect speech
Present simple She said, "It's cold."	›	Past simple She said it was cold.
Present continuous She said, "I'm teaching English online."	›	Past continuous She said she was teaching English online.
Present perfect simple She said, "I've been on the web since 1999."	›	Past perfect simple She said she had been on the web since 1999.
Present perfect continuous She said, "I've been teaching English for seven years."	›	Past perfect continuous She said she had been teaching English for seven years.
Past simple She said, "I taught online yesterday."	›	Past perfect She said she had taught online yesterday.
Past continuous She said, "I was teaching earlier."	›	Past perfect continuous She said she had been teaching earlier.
Past perfect She said, "The lesson had already started when he arrived."	›	Past perfect NO CHANGE - She said the lesson had already started when he arrived.
Past perfect continuous She said, "I'd already been teaching for five minutes."	›	Past perfect continuous NO CHANGE - She said she'd already been teaching for five minutes.

Modal verb forms also sometimes change:

Direct speech		Indirect speech
will She said, "I'll teach English online tomorrow."	›	would She said she would teach English online tomorrow.
can She said, "I can teach English online."	›	could She said she could teach English online.
must She said, "I must have a computer to teach English online."	›	had to She said she had to have a computer to teach English online.
shall She said, "What shall we learn today?"	›	should She asked what we should learn today.
may She said, "May I open a new browser?"	›	might She asked if she might open a new browser.